Introduction
When we speak of the Political Thought of Mostashar al-Dowleh, we are, in fact, in search of one of the earliest voices calling for law and reform in modern Iranian history. Mirza Yusef Khan Mostashar al-Dowleh, in the second half of the nineteenth century—an era when Iran was torn between tradition and modernity—boldly proclaimed a new idea: “The salvation of the nation lies in one word—law.” Understanding the depth of the Political Thought of Mostashar al-Dowleh is impossible without recognizing the historical, social, and cultural contexts of his time. This section examines those contexts: Iran during the Naseri era, the structure of power, the condition of the intellectual class, and the influence of Mostashar al-Dowleh’s travels and personal experiences on the formation of his political ideas.
Iran in the Nineteenth Century: The Crisis of Power and the Awakening of Thought
The nineteenth century was a period of crisis for Iran. Repeated defeats in the wars with Russia, the loss of the Caucasian territories, economic weakness, and technological backwardness all combined to place the Qajar state in a fragile position. Meanwhile, the bureaucratic and traditional clerical classes held dominant power, and any attempt at reform faced their resistance.
In such circumstances, the ideas of reform and modernization entered Iran through the Caucasus and Istanbul. A group of educated bureaucrats and diplomats emerged as the first generation of Iranian intellectuals. Among them, Mirza Yusef Khan Mostashar al-Dowleh stood out as a prominent figure. Unlike many of his contemporaries who remained confined within bureaucratic duties, he adopted a critical perspective toward the status quo and, through his personal experiences, articulated a new concept of politics and governance: the necessity of law as the rational order of society.
Family Background and Education
Mostashar al-Dowleh was born in Tabriz—a city that, at the time, served as the political and economic heart of Iran’s transformation. Due to its proximity to the Caucasus and the Ottoman Empire, Tabriz was among the first Iranian cities to encounter the manifestations of modern civilization.
He came from a family of bureaucrats and men of letters, so he received a traditional education in Persian and Arabic literature from an early age. During his youth, he developed an interest in the French language—an interest that would later shape his intellectual trajectory. His acquaintance with European thinkers such as Montesquieu, Rousseau, and Voltaire exposed him to new ideas of law, liberty, and social justice.
Around the same time, he entered the Qajar Ministry of Foreign Affairs and was sent on diplomatic missions to the Caucasus and Tbilisi—regions influenced by Russian and European cultures. These travels opened a window to a new world for him.
The Influence of Diplomatic Missions on His Intellectual Development
In the Caucasus, Mostashar al-Dowleh witnessed for the first time the workings of modern urban administration, civil laws, courts, and educational systems. In a letter to one of his friends, he wrote: “I realized why these people live in prosperity while we remain in poverty: they have law, and we have commands.” This statement later became the central theme of his famous treatise One Word (Yak Kalemeh).
Upon returning to Iran, he rejoined the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and later served as Iran’s ambassador to France. His stay in France marked a turning point in his intellectual life. At that time, liberalism and social justice movements were on the rise across Europe. Mostashar al-Dowleh observed firsthand how parliaments, the rule of law, and a free press could restrain power and engage citizens in shaping their political destiny. From these experiences, he learned profoundly that no nation could attain freedom without law.
Return to Iran and the Beginning of Reformist Activities
After returning from France, Mostashar al-Dowleh was appointed to various administrative posts within the Qajar government. However, his reformist spirit was incompatible with the autocratic atmosphere of his time. Reports indicate that he frequently criticized financial corruption, bribery, and the absence of a legal system during court sessions.
Despite strong opposition, he persisted in promoting the concept of legal order among the elites and even among the clergy, using reason and moral arguments. He believed that reform in Iran should begin within the bureaucracy itself—rooted in intellect and ethics—rather than through revolution or rebellion. This approach distinguished him sharply from some of his contemporary intellectuals; he was a reformer, not a revolutionary.
The Relationship Between the Political Thought of Mostashar al-Dowleh and Religion and Sharia
One of the most significant aspects to consider in the Political Thought of Mostashar al-Dowleh is his relationship with religion. Unlike intellectuals such as Akhundzadeh, who viewed religion as an obstacle to progress, Mostashar al-Dowleh sought to demonstrate that Islam itself is founded upon the principles of law and justice. He repeatedly emphasized in his writings that the proper implementation of religious law is, in essence, the same as adherence to legal order, and that there is no contradiction between civil law and divine law.
This perspective was of great importance in his time, for it gave legitimacy and a sacred meaning to the concept of law. In a society where every modern idea was quickly accused of “Westernization,” Mostashar al-Dowleh managed to present modern political ideas through an indigenous and religiously acceptable framework.
Indeed, he was among the first to attempt a reconciliation between political modernity and religious morality. This effort not only distinguished the Political Thought of Mostashar al-Dowleh from that of other thinkers but also guided the course of Iranian Enlightenment toward a dialogue between religion and reason.
From the European Experience to Writing the Treatise One Word
In one of his letters to a friend in Tabriz, Mostashar al-Dowleh wrote: “I saw that wherever there was law, there was order, and wherever there was no law, there was tyranny.” These experiences gradually crystallized in his mind into a coherent idea, which ultimately took form in his treatise One Word (Yak Kalemeh). In this work, he sought to show that all the progress and development of Europe could be summarized in a single word: law.
However, his concept of “law” was not a set of rigid legal codes—it was the guarantor of justice and social morality. Mostashar al-Dowleh believed that law must arise from the will of the people and that all individuals should be equal before it. He wrote explicitly: “What delivers a nation from degradation is justice, and justice is impossible without law.”
Society and Politics Confronting a New Idea
In the autocratic atmosphere of Naser al-Din Shah’s reign, such ideas were perilous. The government considered any discussion of law and justice a threat to absolute power. Traditional religious scholars, too, viewed the word “law” with suspicion, regarding it as a rival to Sharia. Nevertheless, the ideas of Mostashar al-Dowleh gradually spread among the emerging educated classes—bureaucrats, teachers, and translators of the Dar al-Fonun (the first modern school in Iran).
In effect, he played a foundational role in transforming the language of politics in Iran. Before him, political discourse revolved around terms such as justice, Sharia, and the king’s decree. After him, the word law entered the Iranian political vocabulary. This linguistic shift was, in itself, a sign of a deeper transformation in modes of thought.
In sum, the Political Thought of Mostashar al-Dowleh was born out of lived experience, European learning, and a profound understanding of Iranian culture. He was neither a mere philosopher nor a power-seeking politician; rather, he was a moral thinker deeply concerned with liberating his people from the bondage of lawlessness. His life exemplified an attempt to unite ethics, religion, and politics within a modern conceptual framework.
For this reason, studying his life and historical context is not merely the biography of a single individual—it is the reexamination of one of the earliest intellectual efforts to rationalize politics in Iran. His treatise One Word, which will be examined in detail in the following section, represents the distilled essence and culmination of the Political Thought of Mostashar al-Dowleh.
Analyzing the Political Thought of Mostashar al-Dowleh in the Treatise One Word
The Beginning of an Intellectual Transformation
If we were to identify a single point marking the birth of modern rationality in Iranian political thought, it would undoubtedly be Mostashar al-Dowleh’s treatise One Word. This work represents not only the first systematic attempt to articulate the concept of law within an indigenous intellectual framework but also a bridge between Islamic tradition and modern European experience.
The Political Thought of Mostashar al-Dowleh in this treatise was, on the one hand, shaped by his personal experiences and his study of Western political philosophy, and, on the other hand, aimed to ground Iran’s political reform on religious and moral foundations.
Content and Structure of the Treatise One Word
The treatise One Word is a brief yet profoundly rich work. At its opening, Mostashar al-Dowleh writes, in a passionate and patriotic tone, to the people of Iran that all the happiness and progress of civilized nations can be summarized in one word: law. This statement forms the core of his thought, and all subsequent sections elaborate upon this central idea.
He proceeds to define the concept of law and demonstrates that, within Islam, law is also the foundation of social order. Drawing upon verses from the Qur’an and the sayings of the Prophet, he seeks to prove that justice and equality—the two pillars of law—are inherent within Sharia itself.
In fact, One Word can be considered the first conscious attempt to translate modern political concepts into a religious idiom. Mostashar al-Dowleh explains ideas such as the rule of law, separation of powers, liberty, responsibility, and equality using moral and theological terminology, ensuring they resonated with the sensibilities of his Muslim contemporaries.
Law in the Thought of Mostashar al-Dowleh
In the Political Thought of Mostashar al-Dowleh, law is not merely an administrative tool or an instrument of governance—it is the embodiment of divine justice within human society. He believed that law must be founded upon reason, conscience, and the public good, and that no one—not even the monarch—should stand above it.
He wrote:
“If the king has no law, he is a tyrant; and if the people have no law, they are ignorant. Both ignorance and tyranny are enemies of humanity.”
From this perspective, law is not only the regulator of power but also the moral and spiritual measure of society. Hence, Mostashar al-Dowleh speaks of a concept that can be termed the ethics of law—a union of justice and rationality that forms the foundation of civilization and progress.
The Influence of European Thought on the Treatise
Undoubtedly, Mostashar al-Dowleh’s studies and experiences in Europe played a crucial role in shaping his ideas. During his stay in France, he became acquainted with the works of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Montesquieu, and Diderot, drawing particular inspiration from the concepts of the social contract and separation of powers. Yet, unlike mere translators or imitators of the West, he reconstructed these ideas within an Islamic and Iranian intellectual framework.
He wrote in one section of his treatise:
“If law is not based on Sharia and justice, it is tyranny; and if Sharia is without law, it is in abeyance.”
This statement reveals that Mostashar al-Dowleh did not seek hasty secularization but rather a renewal from within tradition. In modern terms, his goal was to create an indigenous modernity—a synthesis in which reason and religion work together in the service of public justice.
The Relationship Between Law and Freedom
One of the most remarkable aspects of the Political Thought of Mostashar al-Dowleh is the connection he draws between law and freedom. He did not see freedom as license or chaos, but as liberation from oppression and despotism. In his view, freedom is possible only under the protection of law, for it is law that restrains power and safeguards rights.
He wrote elsewhere:
“Freedom without law is anarchy, and law without freedom is despotism. The happiness of a nation lies in the union of these two.”
In this way, Mostashar al-Dowleh arrived at a concept that was revolutionary for his time: the rule of law. In a society where absolute monarchy and royal decree were considered the sources of legitimacy, this was a radical idea.
Relation to Other Reformist Thinkers of the Qajar Era
To better understand the position of the Political Thought of Mostashar al-Dowleh, it must be viewed alongside that of his contemporaries. Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzadeh sought a total cultural and linguistic break from tradition; Mirza Malkam Khan focused primarily on administrative reform and institutional development; and Talibov of Tabriz endeavored to popularize the concept of law through simple, didactic language.
Mostashar al-Dowleh, however, differed in that he sought to unite the idea of legal reform with religious morality and spirituality. He was neither a denier of tradition nor its captive—he aimed to reinterpret it. In this sense, he may be regarded as the forerunner of intra-religious intellectual reform in Iran—a path that would later continue through the thought of constitutionalist clerics and even twentieth-century religious intellectuals.
Reaction of the Government and the Clergy
The publication of One Word provoked the anger of both the royal court and the clerical establishment. The Naseri government regarded any discussion of law as a sign of rebellion and disloyalty to the Shah. The clergy, fearing that the notion of law might supplant Sharia, also opposed it. Eventually, Mostashar al-Dowleh was arrested on charges of “heretical ideas and incitement of the public” and spent a period in prison.
Yet this enforced silence did not extinguish his ideas. One Word circulated in manuscript form among intellectuals and educated elites and soon became one of the inspirational texts of the Constitutional Revolution. According to some scholars, many of the early slogans of the constitutionalists—such as “Adl-e Mozafar” (Mozafarian Justice) and “Rule of Law”—were rooted in the concepts articulated in this treatise.
The Moral System in the Political Thought of Mostashar al-Dowleh
Another essential dimension of the Political Thought of Mostashar al-Dowleh is its moral foundation. He believed that without ethics, law becomes an instrument of oppression. Throughout his treatise, he speaks of the “good soul,” “inner justice,” and the “purity of a ruler’s conscience.” This moral vision elevates his political philosophy beyond the mere legal or administrative sphere.
In truth, Mostashar al-Dowleh sought to redefine politics—not as the art of power, but as a service to humanity and justice. He emphasized moral self-cultivation, believing that “good people make good laws work, while bad people corrupt even the best of laws.”
The Importance of the Treatise in the History of Iranian Thought
The treatise One Word may be considered the beginning of a new intellectual tradition—the tradition of rational legalism. This current of thought continued in the writings of Talibov, Malkam Khan, and the constitutionalists. Yet the distinctiveness of Mostashar al-Dowleh’s work lies in the fact that he was the first to attempt not a direct translation of Western thought, but a localization of the language of law within Iranian culture.
He realized that to reform society, one must speak in the language of that society’s own beliefs and values. Therefore, he sought to express modern concepts through Islamic and moral vocabulary. This approach allowed his work to influence not only secular intellectuals but also progressive members of the clergy.
A Comprehensive View
In general, the Political Thought of Mostashar al-Dowleh in One Word rests upon three pillars: law, justice, and morality. He regarded law not as an instrument of rule but as the measure of humanity; justice not as the decree of a monarch but as the product of collective reason and conscience; and morality not as personal advice but as the foundation of social stability.
He was the first Iranian thinker to recognize that progress is impossible without both law and freedom—and that law itself cannot endure without morality. Thus, the Political Thought of Mostashar al-Dowleh marks the beginning of a kind of historical self-awareness that would later find expression in the Constitutional Revolution.
Legacy, Influence, and Critique of the Political Thought of Mostashar al-Dowleh
From Thought to Movement: The Influence of Mostashar al-Dowleh on the Constitutional Revolution
During his lifetime, the Political Thought of Mostashar al-Dowleh remained on the margins, but after his death, it became one of the intellectual sources of the Constitutional Movement. When One Word circulated widely among the elites and graduates of the Dar al-Fonun, a new generation of Iranians came to understand the necessity of law in governance. In an environment where the very word “law” was unfamiliar, Mostashar al-Dowleh planted it at the heart of Iran’s political discourse—and over time, this seed bore fruit in the Constitutional Revolution.
The intellectual leaders of the revolution—such as Malkam Khan, Talibov, and even Na’ini—each, in their own way, drew upon Mostashar al-Dowleh’s ideas. Malkam Khan promoted the notion of constitutional government through his newspaper Qanun (The Law); Talibov wrote extensively on civic life and legality; and Na’ini, in Tanbih al-Ummah wa Tanzih al-Millah, much like Mostashar al-Dowleh, sought to establish the legitimacy of law from within the framework of Islamic jurisprudence.
In essence, the Political Thought of Mostashar al-Dowleh laid the intellectual foundation for the Constitutional Revolution. He was the first to demonstrate that despotism was not only contrary to justice but also to reason and religion. It was precisely this moral and religious argument that paved the way for the constitutional movement to emerge and flourish.
The Intellectual Legacy in the Twentieth Century
With the victory of the Constitutional Revolution, many of Mostashar al-Dowleh’s ideals were realized: the formation of the parliament, the ratification of a constitution, and the limitation of the monarch’s absolute power. Yet, in practice, the law had still not reconciled with the spirit of Iranian society. Throughout the twentieth century, the concept of law in Iran repeatedly faced crises—from the period of the Minor Tyranny to the regimes that followed—there remained a persistent gap between the “law on paper” and the “law in practice.”
Nevertheless, the ideas of Mostashar al-Dowleh inspired thinkers who sought political rationality and social justice. In later decades, intellectuals such as Mohammad Ali Foroughi, Mehdi Bazargan, and even Ali Shariati each, in their own way, raised the same concern for connecting ethics, law, and religion—the very concern that Mostashar al-Dowleh had first articulated.
In the academic sphere, he is regarded as the father of the Iranian discourse on the rule of law. Many historians of thought consider his treatise One Word (Yek Kalameh) as the beginning of the entry of modern legal concepts into the Persian language.
Limitations and Critique of Mostashar al-Dowleh’s Political Thought
Despite its intellectual brilliance and moral courage, the Political Thought of Mostashar al-Dowleh was not without shortcomings.
First, though he had a deep understanding of the concept of law, he paid little attention to institution-building and the practical mechanisms of enforcing law. In One Word, there is little mention of parliament, elections, or the modern separation of powers, since his primary aim was ethical and epistemic rather than political or procedural.
Second, his view of law was somewhat idealistic. He believed that once a law was written, justice would automatically prevail—whereas historical experience shows that law only works when accompanied by culture, institutions, and education.
Another point is his paternalistic and elitist outlook. Mostashar al-Dowleh saw the nation as in need of guidance from intellectuals and elites, and he made little reference to popular participation. This was, of course, understandable at a time when the concept of citizenship had yet to take shape in Iran, but it also makes his thought appear incomplete compared with today’s democratic theories.
A Religious and Indigenous Response to Western Modernity
One key aspect of the Political Thought of Mostashar al-Dowleh was his effort to reconcile religious tradition with modern concepts. Unlike some of his contemporaries who saw progress in imitating the West entirely, he believed that every reform must have roots in the people’s culture and faith.
He wrote:
“If a nation adopts the laws of the West but does not internalize them in its nature, its law will have form but no meaning.”
At a time when many intellectuals had severed ties with tradition, this was both progressive and realistic. He understood that intellectual transformation in a religious society required a native language and religious legitimacy.
This feature later allowed figures such as Na’ini and other constitutionalist clerics to draw on his ideas in defending constitutionalism. In other words, Mostashar al-Dowleh served as a bridge between the worlds of tradition and modernity—a bridge that, though imperfect, was essential for the intellectual evolution of Iran.
Ethics as the Foundation of Politics
In Mostashar al-Dowleh’s view, politics without ethics is meaningless. His key statement in One Word—
“Law without justice is a sword without a sheath”—
serves as his moral motto against power-oriented politics.
He regarded politics as an arena of moral cultivation, not domination. For him, reform began with the individual; every ruler, he believed, must first discipline his own conscience by the rule of law. This ethical outlook imbued his political thought with a spiritual and humanistic dimension rare among thinkers of his time.
In an age when politics was defined by deceit and power, Mostashar al-Dowleh boldly spoke of the ethics of politics—and perhaps that is precisely why the politicians of his era could not tolerate him.
A Comparative Perspective: Mostashar al-Dowleh and Muslim Intellectuals
Viewed within the broader context of the Muslim world, his thought bears similarities to figures such as Khayr al-Din al-Tunisi in Tunisia and Sayyid Jamal al-Din al-Afghani. All three sought to demonstrate that Islam is not incompatible with civilization and law.
However, Mostashar al-Dowleh differed in his calm, rational, and apolitical approach. He devoted less attention to public agitation or social movements and focused instead on intellectual and moral reform. Perhaps this explains why his name is less famous than al-Afghani’s, but the depth of his thought has proven more enduring.
Indeed, if al-Afghani sought political awakening in the Muslim world, Mostashar al-Dowleh sowed the seeds of ethical and legal awakening in Iran.
Death and the Immortality of His Thought
The fate of Mostashar al-Dowleh was tragic. Because of One Word and his criticism of despotism, he was imprisoned multiple times and ultimately died in isolation and illness. Yet his ideas transcended the prison walls. Later, whenever Iranians spoke of law and justice, his name was heard alongside them.
During the Constitutional Revolution, many freedom seekers revisited his treatise, and newspapers referred to him as “the leader of the law-seekers.” Some modern scholars have even regarded his thought as the first step toward the emergence of an Iranian civil society.
The Relevance of Political Thought of Mostashar al-Dowleh Today
Revisiting the ideas of Mostashar al-Dowleh is not merely a historical exercise—it is a contemporary necessity. In a world where the tension between ethics, law, and power still persists, his thought reminds us that political progress without morality and justice cannot endure.
Even today, Iranian society continues to seek a balance between tradition and modernity, religion and freedom, law and justice. In this search, the Political Thought of Mostashar al-Dowleh can inspire a renewed dialogue on the nature of law and spirituality in politics.
It may be said that he lived ahead of his time—a thinker who arose from within tradition to open a path toward reason, without sacrificing faith.
Conclusion
Mirza Yusef Khan Mostashar al-Dowleh must be regarded as one of the founders of modern thought in Iran. His treatise One Word stands at the intersection of three great currents in Iranian history: Islamic tradition, Western modernity, and Iranian ethics. From the synthesis of these, he sought to create a philosophy of politics founded upon law and justice.
The Political Thought of Mostashar al-Dowleh is not an endpoint but the beginning of a journey—a journey that led to the Constitutional Revolution, the establishment of a constitution, and ultimately, the emergence of the concept of the “citizen” in Iran. Though he did not live to see the fruits of his thought, the intellectual history of Iran would be incomplete without him.
Suggested References
- Mostashar al-Dowleh, Yusef Khan. One Word. Manuscript and lithographic edition, Tehran, 1298 AH.
- Adamiyat, Fereydoun. The Idea of Freedom and the Prelude to the Iranian Constitutional Movement. Tehran: Sokhan, 1975.
- Kasravi, Ahmad. The History of the Iranian Constitutional Revolution. Tehran: Amir Kabir, 1951.
- Aghajeri, Hossein. The Idea of Modernity in Qajar Iran. Tehran: Tarh-e No, 2003.
- Katouzian, Mohammad Ali. State and Society in Iran. Translated by Mohsen Salasi. Tehran: Markaz, 1999.
- Dabashi, Hamid. Iran: A People Interrupted. New York: New Press, 2007.
