Political thought in Islam cannot be understood without recognizing the historical mental structure of Muslims. In this regard, this article aims to demonstrate the Muslim conception of government by referring briefly to the story of Adam and Eve. This article is an interpretation of Patricia Crone’s writings in her book Medieval Islamic Political Thought.
The question that can be raised is: What did Muslims in ancient times think about how humans came to have governments? In other words, what did they consider the origin of the state to be? In response to this question, it can be said that they generally did not view government as a phenomenon that developed and evolved, but rather believed that government existed from the very beginning. It is necessary to elaborate on this brief answer, as this perspective shaped the most fundamental assumptions of Muslims about political thought.
The Ancient Muslim View of the State
Today, the term “state” essentially refers to political and social transformations in the modern era. In this period, the term “state” is understood in two ways:
- First, it refers to the collection of governmental institutions.
- Second, it refers to a society with a specific political order, possessing such institutions.
In contrast to this modern understanding of the state, Muslims in ancient times did not have a term that indicated the concept of a state in either of these two meanings. Rather than viewing themselves as being under the authority of political institutions, they saw themselves as being under the rule of individuals.
When Muslims thought about why government existed, they focused on its role and function: rulers perform different tasks and hold various roles that are necessary, and this necessity arises from the nature of humanity. They rarely considered the historical question of how ruling institutions grew or evolved, or when they first appeared. From the Islamic creation story, it can be inferred that the ancient Muslim view differed from the prevalent view in medieval Western thought. In the West, government was seen as emerging from a new stage of human history, rooted in the fall (the descent). The Muslim view, however, implicitly suggests that government existed even before the creation of humankind.
The Story of Adam and Eve and the Origin of Government
A part of the creation story relevant to our discussion can be summarized as follows: When God created the heavens, the earth, the angels, and the jinn, He also created Iblis (Satan after the fall), who was the first creation to attain power (mulk). God appointed Iblis as the ruler and sovereign over the earth and the heavens of the lower realms, and a guardian of Paradise. According to another narrative, He made him a judge and ruler among the jinn. The jinn were the first inhabitants of the earth, and they had their own kings, prophets, and religious practices, enjoying long lifespans and abundant blessings. However, they became corrupted and spread evil on the earth. Iblis waged war against them, defeated them, and became proud.
In some other narratives, Iblis was among the jinn whom God sent a host of angels to fight, and on the battlefield, Iblis was captured by the angels. As he grew and developed among the angels, he became arrogant. Another narrative states that Iblis’s success as a judge among the jinn led to his arrogance, eventually leading him to wage war against them. In any case, God knew that Iblis had become arrogant, so He created Adam to expose Iblis’s true nature. Iblis refused to bow to Adam, and for this, he was cast into the depths of Hell. God then created Eve. Iblis appeared as a serpent to Eve, deceived her, and she and Adam ate from the forbidden fruit, which led to their expulsion from Paradise.
The Impact of the Fall on Human Order
Some narratives state that as a consequence of this disobedience, Eve was subjected to hardships such as menstruation, pregnancy, and childbirth. Before the fall, Adam and Eve were not compelled to work, but after their fall, they had to engage in labor. They and their descendants were now required to endure the hardships of “plowing, planting, watering, harvesting, threshing, milling, kneading dough, spinning, weaving, and washing,” tasks they were exempt from in Paradise. Thus, the fall fundamentally affected and transformed the conditions of human life.
In Islamic creation narratives, there is not much emphasis on the loss of immortality. Humans, after the fall, are not much more sinful than before. Human history does not become a story of lost Paradise and regained Paradise. Many scholars believe that the Paradise from which Adam and Eve were expelled is not the same as the Paradise where God’s righteous servants will ultimately dwell.
Government in Islamic Narratives
The fall occurs, but Adam and Eve continue their semi-paradisiacal life in some respects. This life might reflect a state akin to Paradise, where material needs were simpler, and their connection to God was closer, although now accompanied by new hardships such as work and production. Adam is the vicegerent and representative of God on Earth, endowed with power and authority (mulk and sultan). He and his son Seth are both prophets, and God reveals His laws and commands to them. Upon Adam’s death, leadership and governance are passed to Seth, and thereafter, each succeeding leader hands over his will and “political authority over those under his power” to his successor.
The lives of these divine men are full of sincerity and piety as they spend their lives in worship of God, without any feelings of envy, hatred, or greed. However, when Cain killed Abel, the semi-paradisiacal mountain where Adam resided was abandoned, and he moved elsewhere. It was there that his descendants became “arrogant tyrants” (the oppressors and Pharaohs).
Conclusion
The story of Adam and Eve in Islamic culture is not just a religious narrative, but a tool that shows how concepts like government and social order became ingrained in the mentality of ancient Muslims. For instance, one can point to the role Iblis plays in shaping the early power structures and order; he, as the first ruler and judge among the jinn, represents the first experience of power and governance in this narrative. This story illustrates that, in the Muslim view, government is not a phenomenon that arose from historical transformations but is a divine matter that has existed from the very beginning of the creation order. Thus, God’s sovereignty over all creatures and the necessity of social order are fundamental concepts in this worldview.
Understanding this is crucial because it shows that political thought in Islam is fundamentally structured around the belief that government has always existed, from the beginning to the end, and it belongs to God alone. We will see how this belief led to the development of the religious jurisprudence approach to politics (Shari’a) and how it influenced the transformation of Greek philosophy among Muslims. Furthermore, we will examine how, in the modern era, Islamism movements have resorted to this belief in opposing modernity and human rationality.
