The political thought of the Ikhwan al-Safa (“The Brethren of Purity”) represents one of the most profound syntheses of religious ethics, philosophical inquiry, and political theory in the classical Islamic world. This secretive and eclectic group of Muslim intellectuals, active between the 9th and 10th centuries in Basra, Iraq, authored the Rasāʾil Ikhwān al-Ṣafāʾ (Epistles of the Brethren of Purity), a comprehensive encyclopedia addressing metaphysics, natural sciences, ethics, and political philosophy. In this article, we explore the political thought of the Ikhwan al-Safa by examining their views on epistemology, anthropology, governance, social organization, and the relationship between religion and politics. Their vision of a rational and just society, governed by divine and philosophical principles, reflects an enduring legacy in Islamic political philosophy.
1. Sociopolitical Context of the Ikhwan al-Safa
The emergence of the Ikhwan al-Safa occurred in a period of significant political and social fragmentation in the Islamic world. The Abbasid Caliphate was experiencing internal decline, while regional dynasties such as the Buyids and Fatimids were rising in influence. The tension between Sunni orthodoxy and Shia heterodoxy, particularly the Isma’ili strain, shaped much of the intellectual landscape. The Ikhwan, believed by many scholars to be affiliated with Isma’ili thought, positioned themselves as reformists who sought to restore the original unity and rational spirit of Islam.
Their project responded to the crisis of legitimacy, the erosion of just governance, and the intellectual stagnation of religious institutions. By advocating for a fusion of reason and revelation, and by articulating a multi-layered theory of politics and society, the Ikhwan attempted to offer a holistic vision of Islamic civilization. The political thought of the Ikhwan al-Safa, therefore, must be seen as a response to the moral and institutional breakdowns of their time.
2. Epistemology: Knowledge as Light and Salvation
For the Ikhwan al-Safa, knowledge (ʿilm) is the foundation of human perfection and societal harmony. Their epistemology is rooted in a Neoplatonic hierarchy of beings, where knowledge functions as a divine light that illuminates the soul and guides it toward its origin. They classified knowledge into natural, mathematical, logical, and metaphysical sciences, viewing them as stages of intellectual purification.
This epistemological framework informs their political theory: only those who possess true knowledge—philosopher-kings or wise imams—are qualified to rule. Ignorance leads to tyranny, while knowledge fosters justice. Thus, the political thought of the Ikhwan al-Safa insists that political leadership must be grounded in a comprehensive understanding of both the natural and spiritual order.
3. Anthropology: Human Diversity and Hierarchy
The Ikhwan develop a nuanced anthropology that distinguishes between different human types based on intellectual and moral capacities. Human beings are microcosms (ʿālam ṣaghīr) of the macrocosm (ʿālam kabīr), endowed with body and soul, instinct and reason. They categorize humanity into spiritual elites, rational individuals, and the unreflective masses.
Ethical diversity among individuals stems from their varying degrees of self-mastery and knowledge. Those who govern must possess moral excellence and spiritual insight. Politics, in this view, is the art of nurturing souls and organizing society in accordance with each person’s nature and potential.
4. Nature and Origin of Politics
Politics (siyāsa) is, for the Ikhwan, a divine art rooted in human nature and necessity. It arises from the need to manage both material life and spiritual development. Politics is not merely about coercive power but about guiding human beings toward perfection.
They divide politics into two kinds: bodily (concerned with material needs) and spiritual (concerned with the soul’s purification). The just ruler mirrors the divine order by embodying wisdom, justice, and mercy. Hence, politics is a sacred trust that reflects cosmic harmony. This vision lies at the heart of the political thought of the Ikhwan al-Safa.
5. Types of Politics in the Political Thought of the Ikhwan al-Safa
The Ikhwan outlines several types of politics, each corresponding to different layers of human and social organization:
- Prophetic Politics (siyāsa nabawiyya): Rooted in divine revelation, this form of politics aims at moral reform and spiritual elevation. Prophets are ideal leaders who combine wisdom and divine guidance.
- Monarchical Politics (siyāsa mulūkīyya): Focused on order, control, and expansion, it reflects the pragmatic needs of worldly kingdoms. While often necessary, it risks degenerating into tyranny if not tempered by ethics.
- General Politics (siyāsa ʿāmma): This corresponds to public governance and statecraft. It deals with organizing people into communities and managing affairs of the polity. It includes political philosophy, jurisprudence, and the practical arts of rule. It is deeply tied to ʿilm al-mulk, or the science of kingship, and reflects a concern with structuring social life based on reasoned authority.
- Particular Politics (siyāsa khāṣṣa): This pertains to household management and familial affairs. The art of managing a family mirrors the broader political order, as both require justice, discipline, and love.
- Intrinsic Politics (siyāsa dhātiyya): This refers to self-governance, or the art of disciplining one’s soul. The Ikhwan view the self as a polity in miniature; just as states must be ordered, so must the human soul be harmonized through reason and virtue.
6. Necessity of Society
Human beings, according to the Ikhwan, are social by nature. They cannot attain perfection or even survival in isolation. Society enables the division of labor, moral education, and mutual aid. The ideal society is one in which individuals contribute according to their talents and receive what they need in justice.
Social organization thus reflects the order of creation itself: a harmonious arrangement in which each part serves the whole. Politics is the mechanism that facilitates this harmony by establishing laws, institutions, and ethical norms.
7. Types of Society: City, Ummah, and Universal State
The Ikhwan distinguish between various levels of social organization:
- The City (madīna): A basic political unit where individuals cooperate for security and prosperity. The city is the training ground for virtue and governance.
- The Ummah (Islamic community): A broader spiritual and moral community united by shared beliefs and ethical values. The Ikhwan see the ummah as an expression of divine unity in diversity.
- The Universal State: An ideal society transcending ethnic and regional boundaries. It reflects the cosmic unity of all humans under one divine law. The Ikhwan envision a philosophical polity where reason and revelation guide global harmony.
8. The State in the Political Thought of the Ikhwan al-Safa
States form when communities institutionalize power to maintain order and pursue justice. The Ikhwan divide states into two kinds:
- Righteous States: Governed by wise rulers who seek the good of all, grounded in justice and knowledge.
- Corrupt States: Ruled by ignorance, tyranny, or selfishness. These eventually collapse due to injustice.
States are subject to transformation: they rise and fall depending on the moral and intellectual quality of their leaders. Political justice (ʿadl siyāsī) is the key to stability; it distributes rights and duties in proportion to merit and need.
9. Government and Religion: Caliphate, Imamate, and Kingship
The Ikhwan treat religion and politics as two wings of human perfection. They argue that religion (dīn) without political authority (mulk) is weak, and politics without religion is blind. True governance must unite both.
They differentiate between:
- Caliphate: The ideal leadership after the Prophet, combining spiritual and temporal authority.
- Imamate: A continuation of prophetic guidance through enlightened individuals.
- Kingship: A practical necessity, often lacking spiritual insight, but redeemable if aligned with justice.
The Ikhwan propose that rulers must emulate prophets in character and knowledge. They also discuss political institutions, the role of advisors, and the necessity of public education.
10. Strategies for Political Continuity
To sustain just governance, the Ikhwan recommend a series of strategies: cultivating virtue among rulers and citizens, institutionalizing ethical education, maintaining balance between classes, and promoting spiritual development.
Political continuity depends not on brute force, but on moral legitimacy and rational policy. By harmonizing soul and society, the Ikhwan present a vision where politics becomes a form of worship and governance a path to salvation.
Conclusion
The political thought of the Ikhwan al-Safa represents a unique synthesis of Islamic revelation, Greek philosophy, and Neoplatonic metaphysics. They envision a world where reason and religion co-govern, where politics is a sacred art, and where society mirrors the cosmos in its order and justice. In today’s world of fragmented ideologies and competing claims to authority, revisiting the political thought of the Ikhwan al-Safa offers a powerful reminder of the moral and metaphysical foundations of political life in the Islamic tradition.
Reference
-
Alikhani, Ali Akbar. Fereydouni, Ali. (2011) The Political Thought of Muslim Thinkers. Volume 1. Publications of the Research Institute for Cultural and Social Studies. Tehran. Iran
