Introduction
The political thought of Abbas Mahmoud al-Aqqad represents one of the pivotal moments in the history of modern Arab intellectual renewal. Al-Aqqad (1889–1964) was an Egyptian writer, poet, and thinker whose works span a wide range of disciplines—from literary criticism to philosophy and politics. What distinguishes him, however, is his unique perspective on politics and freedom—a perspective grounded, on one hand, in faith in reason and human dignity, and, on the other, in resistance to all forms of religious or political domination.
Al-Aqqad grew up in an era when Egypt was caught in deep political, social, and intellectual turmoil. After the collapse of the Ottoman Caliphate and the emergence of the modern state, many Egyptian intellectuals found themselves torn between tradition and modernity. Some, adopting a secular orientation, turned eagerly toward the Western model, while others—particularly Islamists—sought to reconstruct society based on an ideological interpretation of religion. In this context, al-Aqqad adopted a balanced yet critical stance, aiming to demonstrate that freedom, reason, and faith could coexist—without one becoming a tool to suppress the others.
Unlike the Islamic movements that gained momentum in the 1920s, especially with the rise of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt, al-Aqqad defined politics not on the basis of shari‘a but on the foundation of human ethics and individual responsibility. From his perspective, a healthy society is one in which reason and freedom are the prerequisites of genuine faith. He spoke openly against both religious and political despotism, criticizing any system that reduced human beings to mere instruments of ideology.
In his political and social writings—including Sa‘a bayna al-kitab wa al-qiyada (An Hour Between the Pen and Leadership) and his numerous journalistic essays—al-Aqqad repeatedly warned that transforming religion into an instrument of power is more dangerous than irreligion itself. He believed that a “rational Islam” did not mean a theocratic state but rather a moral and free society. In this sense, he can be regarded as one of the pioneers of a form of moral liberalism in the Arab world.
This article seeks to examine al-Aqqad’s political thought through several key dimensions:
- The historical and cultural background of his intellectual formation in Egypt;
- The philosophical foundations of his views on reason and freedom;
- His conception of the relationship between religion and politics;
- His analysis of the concepts of nation and government in his works; and
- His position within the broader context of Arab intellectual movements.
Through an exploration of these dimensions, it becomes evident that al-Aqqad should be regarded not merely as a literary intellectual but also as a political theorist who sought to derive a modern, human-centered interpretation from within the Islamic tradition. This vision set him apart from political Islam, which, in al-Aqqad’s view, sacrifices reason and freedom to the pursuit of power by imposing an absolutist interpretation of religion.
Consequently, studying the political thought of Abbas Mahmoud al-Aqqad is essential to understanding the intellectual transformations of Egypt and the Arab world in the twentieth century. At a time when many intellectuals either succumbed to extreme secularism or became entangled in the orbit of political Islam, al-Aqqad offered a third path—the path of reason, freedom, and moral responsibility.
Part One: The Life and Historical Context of the Formation of Abbas Mahmoud al-Aqqad’s Political Thought
The political thought of Abbas Mahmoud al-Aqqad cannot be understood apart from the intellectual and social transformations that took place in Egypt during the first half of the twentieth century. He was born in 1889 in the city of Aswan, in southern Egypt, into a middle-class family that, although religiously and culturally traditional, did not belong to the religious or political elite. This distance from centers of power would later grant al-Aqqad an intellectual independence that he maintained throughout his life.
Al-Aqqad received only a limited formal education, but through personal effort and extensive reading in philosophy, history, literature, and modern sciences, he became one of the most prominent figures of Arab intellectual life. He described himself as a “graduate of the library,” believing that a person who relies on reason needs no formal educational system. This self-taught approach became the foundation of his intellectual and critical independence—a quality that would later be reflected in his political positions as well.
The first decades of the twentieth century were a period of crisis in Egypt. British colonial rule, growing dissatisfaction with King Fuad I’s monarchy, and the rise of both nationalist and religious movements created a tense political climate. The 1919 Revolution, led by Saad Zaghloul, marked a new phase in Egypt’s political history. In such an atmosphere, many thinkers and intellectuals sought a balance between religious identity and the need for political modernization. However, unlike most of them, al-Aqqad neither longed for the restoration of the caliphate nor for imitation of the West. He believed that liberation begins within the human being, through the reconstruction of reason.
In the years following the revolution, al-Aqqad entered the fields of journalism and parliamentary politics, becoming one of the influential political figures of his time. He was a member of the Wafd Party, which was then regarded as a symbol of Egyptian liberalism and the struggle against royal despotism. As both a journalist and a member of parliament, al-Aqqad frequently clashed with the government and was even imprisoned for a time for criticizing the king. This political experience was not merely a personal incident for him; it took root in his thought and became a defining moment that led him to place the link between individual freedom and human dignity at the center of his political philosophy.
During the same period, Islamist movements were gaining momentum, especially with the founding of the Muslim Brotherhood by Hassan al-Banna in the 1920s. From the very beginning, al-Aqqad drew clear lines of distinction between himself and this movement. He believed that when religion is transformed into a political ideology, it loses its moral and human essence. In his view, Islam should not serve as a governmental program but rather as an inspiration for moral values, freedom, and responsibility. Al-Aqqad expressed this conviction in numerous articles, written with clarity and logical rigor. These writings were controversial at the time, and some Islamists accused him of “Westernization.”
In truth, however, al-Aqqad was neither enamored of the West nor an enemy of tradition. By emphasizing rationality, he called for a return to the essence of Islamic thought as a religion that honors both freedom and intellect. In one of his notes, he wrote: “If religion prevents man from thinking, then it is no longer religion—it is servitude.” This statement captures the essence of his worldview: conscious faith as opposed to blind submission.
Thus, it can be said that The Political Thought of Abbas Mahmoud al-Aqqad emerged within a specific historical context in which Egypt was a battleground among three forces: foreign colonialism, domestic despotism, and religious ideology. Al-Aqqad stood against all three without being absorbed by any of them. He neither compromised with the British, nor supported the monarchy, nor fell into the trap of Islamism. This intellectual independence is perhaps his most defining trait among the twentieth-century Egyptian intelligentsia.
Ultimately, the historical circumstances and personal experiences of al-Aqqad taught him that freedom of thought and human dignity are universal values that must never be sacrificed to politics or religion. From this perspective, his thought can be seen as an effort to restore the rightful place of reason in politics and of ethics in an age dominated by ideology.
Part Two: The Intellectual and Philosophical Foundations of Abbas Mahmoud al-Aqqad’s Political Thought
To understand The Political Thought of Abbas Mahmoud al-Aqqad, one must first grasp his philosophical and epistemological foundations. Al-Aqqad was neither a systematic philosopher in the Western sense nor a partisan theorist, yet his intellectual system was remarkably coherent. He viewed politics as an extension of ethics and believed that no enduring political transformation could take place without a prior transformation in thought and culture.
Rationalism versus Dogmatism
The first pillar of al-Aqqad’s thought is rationalism. He stood firmly against any form of intellectual imitation or submission to absolute authority. For him, reason was not merely an instrument of knowledge—it was also the guarantor of freedom. Hence, in many of his writings, he spoke of “rational Islam.” Yet, his meaning was profoundly different from the Islamists’ interpretation of the term. Al-Aqqad’s rational Islam referred to a faith that allows questioning, not a faith that becomes intertwined with politics and turned into a tool of power.
In his view, religion remains alive only when it is inwardly grounded, free, and conscious. He repeatedly warned that whenever religion becomes subservient to the state or to a political party, it strays from its true essence. As he put it: “The danger is not that we might lose our faith; the danger is that we may empty faith of its substance and place it in the hands of politicians.” This statement marks a clear dividing line between al-Aqqad and the Islamists who sought to build an “Islamic state.”
By emphasizing reason as the foundation of both ethics and politics, al-Aqqad also criticized the fatalistic tendencies prevalent in certain segments of Islamic culture. He argued that a society which surrenders its destiny to fate can never be free. Thus, reason, for him, was not merely a philosophical concept—it was a political stance: reason as resistance to domination.
Freedom as the Essence of Humanity
The second pillar of his thought is freedom. Al-Aqqad regarded freedom as intrinsic to human nature—not as a privilege granted by government or religion. He saw freedom not merely as a political right but as the spiritual foundation of life itself. For him, a person is truly faithful only when he or she thinks freely, for faith that is imposed is not faith—it is coercion.
On this basis, al-Aqqad drew a clear boundary between personal faith and religious authority. He stated explicitly that when clerical power and political power merge, they corrupt both religion and the state. In the Egypt of the 1930s and 1940s—an era when the Muslim Brotherhood’s thought centered on the idea of a “return to the shari‘a”—such statements were bold, even provocative. Yet al-Aqqad was convinced that a free society can flourish only when no power has control over an individual’s conscience.
In his view, freedom is not opposed to faith; it is the very condition for its realization. He repeatedly wrote that the true message of religion is the liberation of human beings from ignorance and blind obedience. Therefore, any political system that restricts freedom of thought—even if it acts in the name of religion—is, in fact, contrary to the spirit of religion itself. In this regard, al-Aqqad was more explicit than most of his Arab contemporaries in his critique of political Islam. He believed that political Islam, by turning faith into compulsory law, empties the human being from within and reduces him to a submissive creature.
Ethics and Individual Responsibility
The third pillar of The Political Thought of Abbas Mahmoud al-Aqqad is ethics as individual responsibility. Unlike many modern intellectuals who considered morality to be relative, al-Aqqad believed that genuine morality can arise only from freedom. A free person is responsible, and a responsible person is moral. Conversely, one who acts out of fear of punishment or hope for reward is neither free nor moral.
This moral vision extended to his understanding of politics. Al-Aqqad believed that politics must serve the moral growth of society—not be a means of deceiving the public or consolidating power. From his perspective, a government is legitimate only when it protects human freedom and dignity. For this reason, he opposed both royal despotism and religious ideology that claimed a monopoly on truth.
In his critique of ideological politics, he wrote: “When a party or a government claims to represent God, there remains no room for criticism or reform.” This statement is not only a denunciation of theocratic regimes but also a warning against all forms of authoritarianism. Al-Aqqad regarded politics as a field of dialogue and reflection—not as a battlefield of faiths.
The Connection between Reason, Freedom, and Ethics
Ultimately, the three pillars of al-Aqqad’s political thought—reason, freedom, and ethics—are internally interconnected. Reason without freedom leads to dogmatism; freedom without ethics results in chaos; and ethics without reason devolves into fanaticism. Thus, al-Aqqad sought to establish a balance among these three principles. This balance is precisely what distinguishes him from political Islam.
In al-Aqqad’s view, faith has meaning only when it serves the growth of the human being, not the pursuit of power. Therefore, politics must be founded on the same principles that safeguard human dignity. Through this vision, al-Aqqad articulated what can be described as a form of Islamic–liberal humanism—a perspective that continues to inspire many thinkers in the Arab world today.
Part Three: Abbas Mahmoud al-Aqqad and the Relationship Between Religion and Politics
One of the most important aspects of The Political Thought of Abbas Mahmoud al-Aqqad is his conceptualization of the relationship between religion and politics — a relationship that has always been a source of contention and tension in the Arab world. Al-Aqqad was among the few thinkers who sought to reconcile religious faith with political freedom without falling into the traps of either political Islam or extreme secularism. In his view, religion and politics each belong to distinct spheres; yet religion can make politics more ethical — not absorb it under its own authority.
Al-Aqqad spoke explicitly against the transformation of religion into an instrument of political power. He believed that once religion is handed over to politicians, it becomes hollow inside, turning from a source of guidance into a tool of domination. In one of his articles, he wrote: “Religion came to free human beings, not to rule over them.” This statement represented his direct opposition to Islamist movements that, since the 1920s, had been working under the slogan “Islam is the solution” (al-Islam huwa al-hall) to build a religious state.
From al-Aqqad’s perspective, the role of religion is to awaken faith and moral conscience — not to legislate or administer government. Whereas Islamists, particularly in the twentieth century, sought to portray politics as a continuation of religion, al-Aqqad held the opposite view: when religion merges with politics, it neither moralizes politics nor preserves its own ethical integrity. He repeatedly warned that such a fusion inevitably leads to religious despotism, for in such systems, any opposition to rulers is cast as opposition to God.
In al-Aqqad’s eyes, faith is a personal and conscious act; no government or institution can impose it. He made a clear distinction between what he called the “religion of faith” and the “religion of power.” The religion of faith calls humanity to responsibility, justice, and freedom; the religion of power, on the other hand, turns faith into a justification for political agendas. Al-Aqqad argued that the real danger in the Arab world is not irreligion but the politicization of religion.
For this reason, al-Aqqad opposed the idea of an “Islamic government” in its ideological sense. He did not view Islam as a system of government but rather as a source of moral inspiration. In his view, although the Qur’an refers to principles such as justice and consultation (shura), it never prescribes any specific form of government. This interpretation led al-Aqqad toward an open and human-centered understanding of religion — one that emphasizes individual freedom and moral responsibility rather than obedience to religious institutions.
This outlook inevitably brought him into intellectual conflict with many Islamist thinkers, including Hassan al-Banna and Sayyid Qutb. In numerous articles, al-Aqqad criticized their ideological tendencies, writing that such approaches “drag religion down from heaven to earth and turn God into a tool of politics.” He believed that in a theocratic regime, true faith dies from within, for people become religious out of fear of the state rather than out of awareness and choice.
In contrast, al-Aqqad called for a society in which religion would remain alive in people’s consciences, not merely enshrined in formal legislation. He defended the moral and cultural role of religion in public life but insisted on institutional separation between religion and politics. In his view, the state must remain neutral in order to preserve freedom of belief. This position closely resembles what might be called “ethical laïcité” — a form of moderate secularism in which religion maintains a presence in public life, not as an authority but as a moral inspiration.
Indeed, al-Aqqad regarded politics as an extension of ethics, not of shari‘a. He believed that when politics is divorced from ethics, it degenerates into corruption; but when it becomes one with religion, it turns into tyranny. Therefore, in his thought, a sound political order is one that draws strength from the individual’s moral conscience rather than from the religious legitimacy of rulers.
It is important to recognize the historical context in which al-Aqqad wrote. His era was one in which many Arab intellectuals were divided between two extremes: some embraced full secularism, while others turned to political Islam in reaction to it. Al-Aqqad, however, chose a middle and rational path, steering clear of both forms of extremism. Ultimately, he viewed religion as a source of human growth and meaning, and politics as a realm of responsibility and justice — two distinct domains that converge only in the realm of ethics.
Thus, in the political thought of Abbas Mahmoud al-Aqqad, the relationship between religion and politics is defined not by opposition but by ethical distinction. This distinction marks the boundary between free faith and religious ideology. With this vision, al-Aqqad emerged as one of the first thinkers in the Arab world to articulate a concept of civic politics grounded in moral conscience — a vision that continues to keep alive the voice of reason and freedom against the discourse of political Islam.
Part Four: Freedom, Nation, and Government in the Thought of Abbas Mahmoud al-Aqqad
Among the central concepts in Abbas Mahmoud al-Aqqad’s political thought, three words appear more frequently than all others: freedom, nation, and government. These three ideas are so closely interwoven in his writings that understanding one without the others is impossible. Al-Aqqad understood politics through the lens of human freedom, viewed the nation as the collective will to preserve that freedom, and considered government legitimate only insofar as it served the freedom and dignity of the nation.
Freedom as the Foundation of Politics
For al-Aqqad, freedom is not only a political value but also the existential foundation of humanity. In his writings, freedom carries both philosophical and civic meanings. To him, freedom means the human capacity to make conscious choices and to take responsibility for those choices. He wrote: “A free man is one who thinks, not one who obeys another.” This simple yet profound expression encapsulates the essence of his political vision.
In Egypt of his time—when the monarchy restricted civil liberties and political parties were trapped in exhausting rivalries—al-Aqqad spoke with an independent voice, outside any political camp. He regarded freedom not as a gift bestowed by the state but as a natural right of every human being. On this basis, he repeatedly defended the right to dissent, arguing that no society can survive without free opposition.
In contrast to the Islamist view, which defined freedom within the bounds of shari‘a, al-Aqqad insisted that law must serve freedom, not restrain it. He argued that any society that restricts freedom of expression will, sooner or later, destroy freedom of belief as well, since both are founded upon reason and responsibility. This intimate link between political and intellectual freedom marks a crucial distinction between his thought and Islamist discourse, which often reduces liberty to the framework of jurisprudential limits.
The Nation as a Moral Community
In al-Aqqad’s thought, the concept of the nation (al-watan / al-umma) is not merely a collection of people or a political entity; rather, it is a moral community whose members are bound together by shared values and free will. The nation, in his view, is formed on the basis of human and cultural ties, not exclusively religious or racial ones. Thus, al-Aqqad rejected any attempt to define the nation in religious terms. He warned that when a nation is defined by religious belief, any intellectual opponent can easily be labeled as “the other” or an enemy—and that, he said, is the beginning of tyranny.
In numerous essays, al-Aqqad emphasized Egyptianness (Miṣriyyah), not as something opposed to Islam, but as an integral part of the Egyptian people’s historical experience. He believed that faith is a universal and human matter, while the nation is the institutional and political framework of daily life. This distinction set him apart from Islamists who embraced the idea of a transnational Islamic ummah. For al-Aqqad, both the state and the nation must be governed on the basis of a social contract and the interests of citizens, not according to religious or racial ideals.
Government and the Critique of Despotism
Al-Aqqad personally experienced the realities of despotism. He lived through the autocratic rule of Kings Fuad and Farouk and later witnessed his disappointment with the military dictatorship that followed the Revolution of 1952. These lived experiences transformed his political theory from abstract speculation into a critical philosophy of power.
He saw government as an institution that must always be subject to collective reason and public scrutiny. For al-Aqqad, government goes astray when the people, out of fear or fanaticism, begin to sanctify it. He observed this tendency both in monarchical autocracies and in religious movements. Therefore, in his thought, criticism of power is not merely a political duty but a moral obligation.
In contrast to Islamist thinkers who derived political legitimacy from “divine sovereignty,” al-Aqqad believed that the only legitimate source of authority is the consent of the people and their freedom. Whoever violates human freedom, regardless of title or creed, forfeits legitimacy. He considered religious government even more dangerous than absolute monarchy, for in it despotism is cloaked in sanctity, and every act of criticism becomes branded as “heresy.”
Politics as the Practice of Free Morality
Ultimately, for al-Aqqad, politics has meaning only when it serves as a means to realize human dignity. While he sought a clear separation between religion and the state, he simultaneously upheld an inseparable connection between politics and ethics. Politics devoid of ethics degenerates into corruption; ethics devoid of freedom descends into fanaticism.
From this perspective, al-Aqqad’s political philosophy envisions a society in which the free nation, the accountable state, and the moral citizen form the three pillars of a just political order. His vision offered a rational and humanistic response to the crises that plagued the Arab world in the twentieth century — from royal autocracy to religious extremism.
In other words, al-Aqqad desired neither a theocratic state nor a godless society. What he sought was a community in which freedom and morality nourish one another. At a time when politics had become a battlefield of competing ideologies, al-Aqqad preserved the voice of conscience and reason — and that, perhaps, remains his most enduring legacy in the history of modern Arab thought.
Part Five: The Place of Abbas Mahmoud al-Aqqad’s Political Thought in the Arab Intellectual Movement
To understand the importance of Abbas Mahmoud al-Aqqad’s political thought, it cannot be examined apart from the broader Arab intellectual movement of the twentieth century. He lived in an era when the Arab world was contending with three major intellectual forces:
- Secular and Westernist currents, which relied heavily on imitation of European models.
- Islamist political movements, which made religion the foundation of political legitimacy.
- Nationalist movements, which emphasized the identity and independence of the nation.
Al-Aqqad skillfully stood independent of all three. He was neither a Westernizing secular imitator, nor a follower of ideological Islamism, nor a rigid nationalist. Instead, he sought to build a bridge between reason, morality, and freedom, demonstrating that religion and national identity could serve humanity and society rather than function as instruments of repression or legitimization of power.
A Courageous Critique of Religious Fundamentalism
One of the most distinctive features of al-Aqqad’s thought was his courageous critique of religious fundamentalism. While some secular intellectuals completely abandoned religion, al-Aqqad emphasized the moral and humanistic values of faith while simultaneously confronting political Islamism and dogmatic interpretations of religion. This position placed him at a unique point of equilibrium in the history of Arab intellectual life — a space where freedom of thought and moral faith could coexist.
Within the intellectual sphere, al-Aqqad exerted a lasting influence on subsequent generations of Egyptian and Arab thinkers. He proved that one could critique and guide politics independently of parties and political factions, relying instead on reason and ethics. This legacy gained even greater significance in an era marked by the rise of political Islam and totalitarian ideologies. Many of his contemporaries — even those who did not fully agree with his positions — held deep respect for his intellectual independence and courage in criticism.
Civil Legitimacy and the Foundations of a Free Society
In his confrontation with Islamism, al-Aqqad demonstrated that the legitimacy of civil society cannot be derived solely from religion or any other ideology. He proposed that society should be built upon freedom, individual responsibility, and collective morality. This idea was especially influential in the postcolonial era and during the formation of national states in the Arab world, inspiring intellectuals who sought a balance between tradition and modernity.
Reviewing the trajectory of modern Arab intellectual life, one can identify three main areas that define al-Aqqad’s political thought:
- Critique of despotism and authoritarianism, whether political or religious.
- Promotion of freedom of thought and moral responsibility as the foundation of healthy politics.
- Reinterpretation of religion as a moral and human force, rather than an instrument of power or repression.
These three features make al-Aqqad a thinker who, even more than half a century after his death, continues to inspire Arab scholars, writers, and political thinkers. He showed that it is possible to think in the Arab world independently, freely, and ethically, while at the same time preserving faith and rejecting religious fundamentalism.
Conclusion
A study of Abbas Mahmoud al-Aqqad’s political thought reveals a thinker who, amid the complex and turbulent world of twentieth-century Egypt, discovered an independent and rational path for understanding politics and religion. Al-Aqqad regarded freedom as the essence of human existence, and believed that no political or religious power should ever restrict it. He saw reason, ethics, and individual responsibility as the three pillars of sound politics, and drew a clear boundary between faith and tyranny.
His explicit critique of political Islamism remains one of the most significant aspects of his thought. Al-Aqqad warned that when religion becomes a tool of power, both human freedom and the spirit of faith perish. At the same time, he emphasized that faith and moral religion can serve as sources of individual and social growth — but only when united with freedom and reason.
From the perspective of nation and government, al-Aqqad presented a vision of civil society in which freedom, justice, and the moral responsibility of citizens form the foundation of politics. He maintained that a legitimate government can only exist if it protects human freedom and dignity and accepts public criticism and collective reason. This stance positioned him in firm opposition to all forms of despotism — whether monarchical or theocratic.
Ultimately, the place of Abbas Mahmoud al-Aqqad’s political thought within the Arab intellectual tradition is unmistakable: he was a thinker who examined both religion and politics through the lens of ethics and freedom, and who demonstrated that it is possible to think in the Arab world independently, freely, and humanistically. His intellectual legacy continues to inspire Arab researchers and writers who seek to reconcile reason, morality, and freedom.
In sum, al-Aqqad’s political philosophy was not merely a product of his time, but a guiding framework for confronting the intellectual and political challenges of the contemporary Arab world.
