The political thought of Shu’ubiyya is one of the significant intellectual and political movements in Islamic history, emerging as a reaction to Arab political, cultural, and social dominance during the Umayyad Caliphate (41-132 AH / 661-750 CE) and the Abbasid Caliphate (132-656 AH / 750-1258 CE). Shu’ubiyya can be regarded as the first serious movement against Arab nationalism, advocating for the equality of non-Arab peoples, particularly the Persians, against Arab hegemony. This movement not only had social and cultural dimensions but also influenced the policies of the caliphate. This article examines the political thought of Shu’ubiyya, its historical roots, its impact on the political and social structures of Islamic societies, and its long-term consequences in shaping Iranian nationalism and other ethnic identities in the Islamic world.
Historical Roots of Shu’ubiyya
After the conquest of Persia (16-21 AH / 637-642 CE) and other non-Arab lands by Muslims, Arabs, as the conquerors, gained a special political and social superiority. A new class system emerged in which Arabs enjoyed more privileges than the Mawali (non-Arab Muslims), leading to widespread dissatisfaction among non-Arab cultural and political elites, particularly the Persians. Many Persians who had converted to Islam were still deprived of full citizenship rights in Islamic society and faced discrimination. This discrimination manifested in various forms, such as additional taxes, administrative restrictions, and limited opportunities for social and political advancement.
The Shu’ubiyya movement arose in the 2nd century AH (8th century CE) as a reaction to these inequalities, initially manifesting in literary and cultural spheres. Persian poets, writers, and scholars gradually began to reinterpret and redefine the role of Persian culture in Islamic civilization, using their works to portray Persian cultural superiority over Arabs. Over time, this movement extended beyond the cultural sphere and influenced social and political domains.
Political Thought of Shu’ubiyya and the Concept of Egalitarianism
By referencing Islamic teachings on the equality of all Muslims, the Shu’ubis argued that no ethnic group held superiority over another except through piety. Citing the Quranic verse, “Indeed, the most honored of you in the sight of Allah is the most righteous among you” (Al-Hujurat: 13), they rejected Arab racial supremacy and emphasized the role of non-Arab civilizations, particularly the Persian civilization, in shaping and elevating Islamic civilization. In practice, this ideology defended non-Arab cultural identity against the Arab-centric policies of the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates.
Politically, Shu’ubiyya gradually undermined the legitimacy of the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates. Various political movements, such as the Mawali uprisings, the Abbasid Revolution (which was supported by the Persians in 132 AH / 750 CE), and independence movements like the Tahirids (205-259 AH / 820-873 CE), the Saffarids (247-393 AH / 861-1003 CE), and the Samanids (261-389 AH / 874-999 CE) were, to some extent, influenced by Shu’ubiyya ideology. These movements were not only social protests but also efforts to restructure power and reduce Arab dominance in governance.
The Role of Intellectual and Cultural Movements in Expanding Shu’ubiyya
Shu’ubiyya was influential not only in the political and social spheres but also in literature and science. Many Persian intellectuals and writers, such as Ibn al-Muqaffa’ (104-142 AH / 722-759 CE), Bashar ibn Burd (96-167 AH / 714-783 CE), and Ferdowsi (329-411 AH / 940-1020 CE), used their works to counter Arab cultural dominance. Ferdowsi, in his Shahnameh, revived Iran’s ancient past, preserving Iranian identity and attempting to extract Persian history and culture from the shadow of Arab culture.
In the scientific field, scholars such as Al-Biruni (362-440 AH / 973-1048 CE) and Al-Razi (251-313 AH / 865-925 CE) emphasized the scientific and philosophical achievements of pre-Islamic Iran, highlighting the intellectual richness of non-Arab cultures. This approach gradually led Persian scholars to be recognized in the Islamic world as independent intellectuals distinct from Arab traditions, maintaining their cultural autonomy.
The Political Thought of Shu’ubiyya and Its Impact on Iranian Nationalism
Although Shu’ubiyya was initially an intra-Islamic movement advocating ethnic equality, over time, it laid the groundwork for emerging nationalist sentiments among non-Arab societies. In Iran, political movements such as the Alid and Abbasid revolts, as well as governments like the Tahirids and Saffarids, were influenced by Shu’ubiyya ideas to some extent. In later periods, Shu’ubiyya served as an intellectual foundation for Iranian nationalism, which, in modern times, has been reinforced through the revival of Iranian identity and an emphasis on Iran’s pre-Islamic heritage. Some Iranian intellectuals have revisited Iran’s history and revived national values based on Shu’ubiyya concepts. This trend is observable in literature, cinema, and even cultural policy-making.
Conclusion
The political thought of Shu’ubiyya was one of the most significant intellectual movements in Islamic history, emerging as a reaction against Arab supremacism. While initially advocating for ethnic equality, it gradually played a crucial role in shaping nationalist sentiments in Iran and other non-Arab territories. This movement not only influenced the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates but also contributed to the formation of independent Iranian governments and the revival of national identity in modern times.
Today, a precise understanding of this movement and its impact on cultural and political identities in the Islamic world can provide better insights into current challenges related to ethnic and national identities in the region. Therefore, studying Shu’ubiyya is not merely a historical inquiry but also a valuable approach to analyzing the political and social dynamics of the contemporary Islamic world.
