The political thought of Qadariyya was one of the earliest intellectual movements in Islam that directly addressed the issue of free will versus predestination and profoundly impacted political theories and the legitimacy of caliphates. This school of thought, which emerged in the late 1st century AH (mid-8th century CE), emphasized human will and responsibility, challenging the legitimacy of deterministic rule. While the Umayyads promoted fatalism to justify their authority by presenting their rule as divine will, the Qadariyya countered this claim by advocating human responsibility and choice.
This article examines the historical background, intellectual foundations, and political and theological impacts of Qadariyya, demonstrating how this movement paved the way for later Islamic freedom-oriented thoughts.
1. Historical and Social Context of Qadariyya’s Emergence
1.1. Intellectual and Political Crisis at the Beginning of the Umayyad Caliphate
Following the assassination of Uthman ibn Affan (35 AH / 656 CE) and the onset of civil wars among Muslims, the issue of political legitimacy and the role of humans in shaping their destiny became a central theme in Islamic political thought. The government of Mu‘awiya ibn Abi Sufyan (r. 41–60 AH / 661–680 CE) and his successors propagated the doctrine of divine predestination (jabr), claiming that the caliphate was determined by God’s will, leaving no room for human intervention. This view directly contradicted Islamic teachings emphasizing individual responsibility.
1.2. The Emergence of the First Qadariyya Thinkers
In this context, thinkers such as Ma‘bad al-Juhani (d. 80 AH / 699 CE) and Ghaylan al-Dimashqi (d. 105 AH / 723 CE) emerged, arguing—based on the Qur’an and Prophetic tradition—that humans have free will and cannot be compelled to accept a predetermined fate. This idea had profound political implications, as it undermined the Umayyads’ claim that their rule was divinely ordained and instead suggested that people had the power to determine their own political future.
1.3. Umayyad Suppression of Qadariyya
The political dimension of Qadariyya quickly attracted followers among intellectual and political elites. However, recognizing the existential threat posed by this ideology, the Umayyads launched a brutal suppression campaign. Ma‘bad al-Juhani was executed in 80 AH (699 CE) by order of Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, the powerful Umayyad governor. A few decades later, Ghaylan al-Dimashqi, who had gained influence at the court of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik (r. 105–125 AH / 724–743 CE), was arrested and executed for spreading Qadariyya beliefs.
Despite these crackdowns, Qadariyya’s influence persisted within Islamic intellectual circles, later shaping some ideas like Mu‘tazilite.
2. Intellectual and Political Foundations of Qadariyya
2.1. The Principle of Free Will vs. Predestination
The core doctrine of Qadariyya was that human beings possess free will and are responsible for their actions. This directly contradicted the Ash‘arite school of thought, which later became dominant in Sunni theology, advocating a form of divine determinism.
2.2. The Impact of the Political Thought of Qadariyya on Political Legitimacy
If humans have free will, then governments cannot claim divine legitimacy to justify their rule. This notion laid the intellectual groundwork for resistance against Umayyad authoritarianism and later influenced various opposition movements.
2.3. Justice and the Accountability of Rulers
Qadariyya scholars argued that justice is a divine attribute and that rulers must govern justly. This idea fueled widespread criticism of Umayyad corruption and oppression, playing a role in the eventual downfall of the dynasty during the Abbasid Revolution (132 AH / 750 CE).
3. Qadariyya and Later Developments in Islamic Thought
3.1. Influence on Mu‘tazilites
Following the fall of the Umayyads, Qadariyya principles found their way into the Mu‘tazilite school during the 2nd and 3rd centuries AH (8th and 9th centuries CE). Wasil ibn Ata (d. 131 AH / 748 CE), the founder of Mu‘tazilism, incorporated the doctrine of free will into his theological framework.
3.2. Abbasid Policies Towards the Political Thought of Qadariyya
The early Abbasids initially embraced Mu‘tazilite ideas, including Qadariyya’s doctrine of free will, to legitimize their rule. However, under Caliph al-Mutawakkil (r. 232–247 AH / 847–861 CE), the Abbasid government shifted toward Ash‘arite determinism, suppressing both Mu‘tazilites and Qadariyya thinkers.
4. Comparison of Qadariyya with Other Islamic Schools of Thought
| Feature | Qadariyya | Determinists (Ash‘arites) | Mu‘tazilites |
|---|---|---|---|
| Free Will | Emphasized human free will | Rejected free will (divine determinism) | Emphasized human free will |
| Role of Government | Rulers must be accountable and just | Government is predestined by divine will | The government must uphold justice |
| Political Impact | Inspired opposition to Umayyads | Legitimized authoritarian rule | Influenced later Islamic philosophy and law |
The political thought of Qadariyya was one of the earliest movements to challenge predestinarian doctrines and authoritarian rule in Islam. By emphasizing human free will, it not only confronted theological fatalism but also questioned the legitimacy of despotic rulers.
Although the political thought of Qadariyya was suppressed during the Umayyad period, its legacy survived in Mu‘tazilite thought and broader Islamic philosophical traditions. This demonstrates that from the earliest centuries of Islam, freedom-oriented and justice-driven ideologies stood in opposition to political oppression, shaping later debates on the relationship between faith and governance.
