The Political Thought of Ash’arism

The political thought of Ash’arism is one of the most significant intellectual schools in Islamic history, emerging as a reaction to the extreme rationalism of the Mu’tazilites. This school, named after Abu al-Hasan al-Ash’ari (d. 324 AH / 936 CE), played a crucial role in defining the legitimacy of the Islamic caliphate, the relationship between religion and politics, and the role of rulers in society. This article will analyze the formation of Ash’ari thought, its confrontation with Mu’tazilism, its key thinkers, its impact on Islamic governments, and its current status.

Historical Context and Formation of Ash’arism

The Ash’ari school was founded in the 4th century AH (10th century CE) by Abu al-Hasan al-Ash’ari. Initially a follower of Mu’tazilism, he later distanced himself from it, seeking a balance between textual and rational teachings. In works such as “Maqalat al-Islamiyyin” and “al-Luma’ fi al-Radd ‘ala Ahl al-Zaygh wa al-Bida'”, he criticized Mu’tazilite views and laid the foundations of Ash’ari doctrine.

The Confrontation Between Ash’arism and Mu’tazilism

The Mu’tazilites emphasized rationalism and human free will, arguing that divine justice required human beings to have full agency over their actions. In contrast, the Ash’arites developed the theory of Kasb (Acquisition), which asserted that God predestines human actions, yet individuals acquire them through their choices. Politically, this view implied acceptance of divine decree in governance and the endorsement of existing rulers.

Major Thinkers of Ash’arism and Their Political Views

Scholars such as al-Baqillani (d. 403 AH / 1013 CE), al-Juwayni (d. 478 AH / 1085 CE), al-Ghazali (d. 505 AH / 1111 CE), and Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (d. 606 AH / 1210 CE) drove the expansion of Ash’ari thought.

• Al-Baqillani, in his book “al-Tamhid”, defended the theory of the caliphate and emphasized the necessity of obedience to the ruler.
• Al-Juwayni, in “Ghayat al-Umam”, examined emergency governance conditions and proposed the theory of legitimate sovereignty.
• Al-Ghazali, in “Ihya’ Ulum al-Din”, highlighted the role of religion in politics and argued that the caliphate should be guided by scholars.
• Fakhr al-Din al-Razi defended Ash’ari theology against philosophers and Mu’tazilites.

The Influence of Ash’arism on Islamic Governments

With the rise of Islamic empires such as the Abbasids, Seljuks, and Ottomans, Ash’ari thought became the dominant ideological framework, supported by ruling elites.

• Abbasids: Ash’ari scholars legitimized the Abbasid caliphate and reinforced obedience to rulers.
• Seljuks: Nizam al-Mulk, the powerful Seljuk vizier, established the Nizamiyya schools to promote Ash’ari doctrines.
• Ottomans: Ash’ari principles were integrated into the Ottoman theory of legitimate sovereignty, supported by scholars like Ibn Kemal Pasha and Abu al-Su’ud Efendi.

The Caliphate from the Ash’ari Perspective

In Ash’ari political thought, the caliphate is a necessary institution for preserving religion and governance. Unlike the Mu’tazilites, who viewed the selection of a caliph as a rational process, the Ash’arites upheld the “al-Nass wa al-Ghalaba” theory, meaning that the caliphate should be established either through textual designation or military dominance. This perspective justified the rule of the Umayyads, Abbasids, and Ottomans, even if their rulers lacked moral legitimacy.

Philosophical and Theological Roots of Ash’arism

Ash’arites drew inspiration from the Ahl al-Hadith tradition while attempting to balance textualism and rationalism. Unlike the Mu’tazilites, they did not consider reason independent of revelation and asserted that many religious matters could only be understood through textual sources (Qur’an and Hadith). Additionally, they maintained a cautious stance toward the rationalist philosophy of thinkers like Ibn Sina and al-Farabi.

Criticisms of The political thought of Ash’arism

Mu’tazilites and Islamic philosophers criticized Ash’arism for its insufficient emphasis on reason. Moreover, Salafis and Wahhabis argue that Ash’arites deviated from orthodox Islamic teachings by engaging in excessive interpretation of religious texts. These differences have historically subjected Ash’arism to opposition.

The Role of Ash’arism in the Development of Islamic Jurisprudence

Many Ash’ari scholars were associated with the Shafi’i and Maliki schools of jurisprudence. They played a significant role in interpreting Islamic legal rulings and incorporating theological debates into the development of Usul al-Fiqh (principles of jurisprudence).

The Impact of Ash’arism on Sufism

The political thought of Ash’arism, particularly through al-Ghazali, significantly influenced Sufism. Ghazali sought to reconcile Sufism with Ash’ari theology, leading many Sufi orders to adopt Ash’ari principles.

The political thought of Ash’arism in the Modern Era

In contemporary times, Ash’arites have faced challenges from modernism and secularism, prompting efforts to adapt their doctrines to new intellectual landscapes. Additionally, some Ash’ari scholars have taken a critical stance toward Islamist movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood and Salafists.

Comparative Analysis of the Political Thought of Ash’arism and Other Schools

Compared to Shi’a Imamate theory, Ash’arism legitimizes rule based on dominance and control, while Shi’ism emphasizes the divine appointment of leaders. Likewise, the Kharijites, unlike the Ash’arites, reject obedience to unjust rulers and advocate for their overthrow.

Conclusion

The political thought of Ash’arism, as one of the most influential schools in Islamic history, provided the foundation for the legitimacy of Islamic governments. Its emphasis on divine decree, the necessity of obedience to rulers, and the interconnection between religion and politics allowed it to shape Islamic governance for centuries. Today, despite new intellectual challenges, Ash’arism remains a major intellectual force within Islamic thought.